Composite Materials and Their
Uses in Cars
Part I: What Is A Composite Material?
B. Chehroudi, PhD
A composite material is a
macroscopic combination of two or more distinct materials having
a discrete and recognizable interface separating them. The
combination produces properties that cannot be obtained with
either constituent acting alone. Examples are reinforced
concrete, wood, and polymer composites. Usually, a composite
consists of a matrix and fillers. In the case of carbon fiber
reinforced polymers (CFRPs), the matrix is a polymer (resin) and
the fillers are small carbon fibers. The morphology and
distribution of the fillers in the matrix is one important
parameter determining the properties of the composite material.
Figure 1 shows possible ways fillers can be shaped and mixed
with the matrix material. Historically, the
Pharaohs of Egypt and the ancient Incan and Mayan civilizations
practiced the usage of plant fibers for strengthening and
preventing bricks and pottery from cracking. Several matrix
materials such as metals, ceramics, and polymers have been used.
The purpose of the matrix is to bind the fibers together,
transfer load to and between fibers, protect fibers from
environments and handling, distribute the load evenly amongst
the fibers, and to provide the interlaminar shear strength of
the composite. The matrix generally determines the overall
service temperature limitations of a composite material.
Consider a laminate made of
CFRP composite. If it is pulled at two ends, a tensile stress,
defined as the force of the tension divided by the laminate�s
cross sectional area, is applied to the material. The
measurement of how much the part bends or changes size (in this
case, changes in length) under load compared to the original
dimension or shape is called strain. Strain applies to small
changes in size and is defined as: [(final length - original
length) / original length] = Change in length or deformation
divided by the original length. In the elastic region of the
material behavior, the tensile stress is linearly related to
strain with a proportionality constant known as Young�s tensile
modulus of elasticity (E). The larger the value of E, the
stiffer the material is. The maximum strength of a material
without breaking when the load is trying to pull it apart is
called �tensile strength�. A good way to visualize this
property is to think of pulling a fresh marshmallow apart and
then pulling a piece of taffy apart. The force or pounds
required to pull the taffy apart would be much greater than
required to pull the marshmallow apart. If that force is
measured and the taffy and marshmallow each had a
cross-sectional area of one square inch, then the taffy has the
higher "tensile strength" in terms of pounds per square inch.
One popular type of composite
material uses a polymer matrix with glass fibers. Glass fiber
composites of all descriptions have found extensive and
successful applica�tions including low-performance
non-structural applications as well as high-performance
struc�tural applications. The applications range from the
building construction trades, to auto, truck arid rail
transportation, seagoing applications including high-performance
racing craft and commercial and military aerospace. Specific
applications involve, decorative panels, appli�ances, ship and
boat hulls, light aircraft and glider construction, nearly all
forms of recre�ational equipment, high-pressure gas containers
and rocket motor casings. This wide spread use of glass
fiber-reinforced organic composites and their continued future
growth is due to many factors, including: cost, availability,
handling and processing ability, useful properties and
characteristics and past good experience in service.
The glass fiber, a popular
one, that is the industry standard is E-glass, which is a
calcium aluminoborosili�cate formulation having very good
mechanical and electrical characteristics at very reason�able
cost. Average mechanical property levels for individual
filaments are 3450 MPa (500 ksi) for tensile strength and 72.4
GPa (10.5 x 106 psi) for Young�s modulus. Extensive research has
been conducted to develop glass fibers possessing higher
strength and stiffness characteristics. Glass formulations
producing filaments of increased strength and stiffness have
been found to be toxic (beryllium glasses) or very high melting
and difficult to handle in com�mercial scale equipment. S-glass
fibers contain a higher percentage of alumina compared to
E-glass. Filament strength, modulus and melt�ing point are
higher than E-glass. Typical filament strength and stiffness for
S-glass are close to 4600 MPa (670 ksi) and 85.5 CPa (12.4 x 106
psi).
Here, we would like to
demonstrate what can be achieved by formation of a composite
material and it is explained through an example using
glass-fiber polymer-matrix composite materials. Fibrous
materials such S-glass, (Kevlar 49) aramid, Spectra, boron and
the many types of carbon fibers produced commercially possess
specific properties (strength/density) and (modulus/density)
many times greater than structural alloys of aluminum, titanium
or steel. However, when the fibers are combined with a matrix
into a near quasi-isotropic lay-up, a highly useful engineering
form of the material, the specific properties are greatly
reduced but are still superior compared to conventional
homogeneous metallic materials. Figure 2 shows the strength- and
stiffness-to-weight (i.e., specific properties) relationships
for several fibers when arrayed in unidirec�tional laminates.
These are calculated values based upon literature fiber values
and 65 vol.% fiber content. It can readily be seen that these
high-performance fiber materials form the basis for the advanced
composites technology. Fiber composites are both lighter and
stronger than steel. They can also be stiffer than steel
depending on the fiber used. The wide variety of materials that
can be combined to form com�posites having highly acceptable
levels of engineering properties can make the selection of
specific materials a challenging task. In Part II of this
series, some other types of composites are discussed with
specific applications in automotive industry.
Figure 1. Changes in these
parameters (i.e., fiber distribution, concentration,
orientation, shape, and size) and fiber material change the
mechanical properties of the composite materials.
Figure 2. �Specific�
tensile strength as a function of �specific� tensile
modulus (indicating stiffness). A number of fibers (S-glass,
E-glass, Aramid, Carbon, SiC, Alumina, and Boron) are shown.
Table 1 and 2: Properties of
fibers and typical composite materials using polymers used as a
matrix material. Reinforcement refers to the type of fibers (or
fillers) used. (MPa)* and (GPa)* are
specific values.
NOTE:
Contact Advanced Technology Consultants for consulting needs
and opportunities in this area.
Composite Materials and Their Uses in Cars
Part II: Applications
B. Chehroudi, PhD
In part I of this series, we
have discussed the basic construction of a composite material.
In this article attempt is made to present a select list of
important applications of composite materials in automotive
industry.
Government regulations in the
United States and Europe continue to demand for tighter
restrictions on vehicle emissions. To meet these requirements,
automakers increasingly turn to new technologies. Among these
are lightweight materials such as plastics and composites. Also,
it is interesting to see that as fuel economy standards
increase, total vehicle mass and steel content decreases and
are replaced by composite materials. E-glass remains the
dominant composite reinforcement, but carbon fiber is becoming
more popular as prices continue to decrease. All together, the
transport sector notably accounts for about 25% of worldwide
production of glass fiber and, cars produced in the United
States can contain as much as 100 kilograms of composite
materials, compared with slightly less than 30 kilograms for
cars built in Europe. Processing methods depend upon the choice
of the matrix material (thermoset or thermoplastic), the total
volume to be produced, and the structural requirements.
New interest in natural
fibers is being driven by environmental regulations and advances
in processing. Natural fibers include those of vegetable origin
constituted of cellulose, a polymer of glucose bound to lignin
with varying amounts of other natural materials. They include
the hard leaf fibers such as abaca (Manila hemp), sisal and
henequen (The leaves are stripped of their pulp mass, leaving
thousands of monofilaments that are dried and baled for
processing into mats); bast fibers from the soft bast tissues or
bark such as flax, hemp, jute, and ramie; and seed-hair fibers
including cotton, kapok and the flosses. For centuries they have
been made into baskets, clothing, sacks, ropes, and rugs. They
have even been smoked. Now plant-derived natural fibers (kenaf,
hemp, flax, jute, and sisal) are making their way into
components of cars. Natural long-fiber composites are aiming at
glass-fiber composites due to the lingering health concerns
about inhaling glass fibers which is contributing to the recent
trend in their applications. It appears then that lightweight,
strong, and low-cost, natural fibers are poised to replace glass
and mineral fillers in many interior parts. In the last decade,
natural-fiber composites of thermoplastics and thermosets have
been embraced by both European and North American car makers for
door panels, seat backs, headliners, package trays, dashboards,
and trunk liners. Although natural fibers have benefited from
the perception that they are "green" or
environmentally-friendly, what is more important is their
ability to provide stiffness enhancement and sound damping at
lower cost and density than glass fibers and mineral fillers.
Natural fibers are also being used in polyurethane composites.
The first commercial example is the inner door panel for the
1999 S-Class Mercedes-Benz, made in Germany of 35% Baypreg F
semi-rigid PUR elastomer from Bayer and 65% of a blend of flax,
hemp, and sisal. The 2-mm-thick door panel is made by the new
NafpurTec process from Bayer's Hennecke Machinery Unit, whereby
a robot places natural-fiber mat in an open mold and second
robot pours PUR over it before the mold is closed. The process
is being used to make sunroof covers for some cars.
The matrix in most composite
materials of use for automotive applications is usually made of
polymers. There are generally two types of polymers; Thermoset
and thermoplastic. The terms "thermosetting" and "thermoplastic"
have been traditionally used to describe the different types of
plastic materials. A "thermoset" is like a concrete.
There is only one chance to liquefy and shape it. These
materials can be "cured" or polymerized using heat and pressure
or as with epoxies a chemical reaction started by a chemical
initiator. A thermoplastic, in general, is like wax; that is,
one can melt and shape it several times. The thermoplastic
materials are either crystalline or amorphous. Advances in
chemistry have made the distinction between crystalline and
amorphous less clear, since some materials like nylon are
formulated both as a crystalline material and as an amorphous
material.
Historically speaking, in
1953 the Mobile Plastics Division of Carlyle corporation
introduced the first pre-impregnated roving. From 1953 to 1955
General Motors, working with Molded Fiberglass products Co.,
launched an exploratory program with its Chevrolet Corvette all
fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) body. In the first production
year, 300 were produced using vacuum bag, aerospace technology.
The success of the Corvette showed the advantages of using FRP
in the fabrication of large complex shapes in relatively low
volume. This giant step matured into 140 million pounds of FRP
in automobile components in 1979.
Primary reasons for
conversion to composite material in automotive industry is
weight reduction and lower cost, although other factors such as
integration, noise reduction, improved styling, and overall part
performance come into the equation as a secondary
consideration.
Although acceptable finished
parts can be molded from variety of processes and materials, the
compression molded sheet molding compound (SMC) and injection or
compression bulk molding compound (BMC) are popular. Both
products provide a wide range of physical properties and
appearance characteristics enabling their use in diverse
applications such as passenger cars, trucks, public transport,
electrical and construction. SMC is a type of fiber-reinforced
composite material which primarily consists of a thermosetting
resin, glass fiber reinforcement, and fillers. Additional
ingredients such as low-profile components, cure initiators,
thickeners, process additives and mold release agents are used
to enhance the performance or processing of the materials. As
with any material system, be it metallic or plastic, SMC can be
formulated to meet specific performance requirements of a
particular application, such as tensile loading or Class �A�
surface where surface smoothness and reflectivity are paramount,
such as exterior body panels, instrument panels, and interior
trim panels. Class A specification arise because today products
are not only designed considering the functionality but special
consideration are given to its form/aesthetic which can bring a
desire in ones mind to own that product. This is only possible
with high-class finish and good forms.
This is the reason why in
design industries Class A surface are given more importance. For
example, composite exterior body panels have undergone
significant improvements in recent years, notably in the area of
defect reduction, using new toughened resins, such as Atryl TCA
from AOC LLC. The experience with this choice of resin and
barrier coating for Class A panels proves ability to essentially
eliminate paint pops. This has restored SMC as a viable option
for more vehicles than before. New 2006 vehicles with SMC body
panels include Cadillac XLR-V and Cadillac STS-V series; both
incorporate styled composite hoods to accommodate larger
engines. The Pontiac Solastice and forthcoming Saturn Sky
roadsters have injection molded SMC tulip panels between the
seats and the deck lid. Sky also features injection molded SMC
front fenders. Jeep Wrangle will have in 2007 a removable SMC
hardtop with built-in sunroof, plus long fiber reinforced
thermoplastic structural door inner panels. The Honda Ridgeline
pickup integrates a multi-piece SMC box with a built-in trunk
compartment, capable of holding up to three golf bags and a
good size cooler. The box surfaces are painted using a spatter
process to provide anti-skid characteristics and UV protection.
Carbon fiber continues to be
of interest for high performance vehicles but recent supply
constraints and higher prices are limiting its further
application for production vehicles. Exposed carbon fiber, in
which the woven pattern can be seen, continues in aftermarket
tuner vehicles. BMW M6 features a roof panel molded in exposed
carbon fiber using epoxy resin and the resin transfer molding
(RTM) process. Others, such as Corvette Z06, Mercedes McLaren
SLR, Lamborghini and Ferrari do use carbon fiber components. Manufacturers
increasingly use the RTM process because it provides a moderate
alternative between the high volume, large capital investment
compression molding and low volume, low capital investment
vacuum infusion molding. The RTM consists of a thermoset
resin injected into a two-part matched mold containing a dry
fiber reinforcement. The basic RTM process includes the loading
of the preformed reinforcement into the RTM tool, closing the
tool, injecting the thermoset resin into the mold, curing the
resin, and removing the part from the mold. The dry fiber
reinforcement, often called a preform, consists of a wide range
of materials from natural wood fibers to synthetic polyester
fibers. The automobile industry most commonly uses glass fibers,
whereas the aerospace industry uses mostly carbon fibers.
On important area of market
penetration for composite material has been in the design of the
intake system. Porsche was the first to experiment with the use
of thermoplastics in the air induction system. In the early
1970s Porsche developed an application for its 911 model using
DuPont Zytel glass-reinforced nylon PA 66 that incorporated the
air filter box, mass air floe sensor mount, throttle body mount
and plenum. Developed prior to the commercial use of the
vibration-welding assemble process, the application featured
a two-piece design joined with glue and bolts. The achieved
reduced weight contributed to improved performance through an
increased power-to-weight ratio for this engine. Introduction of
port fuel injection (PFI) was a turning point for the
application of composites in the intake systems. The PFI
features a dry manifold as compared to the carburetor system
where the fuel is wets a large portion of the intake system.
If the engine backfires and caused the air-fuel mixture to
explode, an aluminum manifold could withstand the event;
however, thermoplastic manifold would not and result in its
rupture. The PFI approach eliminated this explosive mixture in
the manifold and greatly reduced the risk, making thermoplastics
a viable solution. A number of variables may affect the peak
burst pressure during a severe engine backfire such as,
throttled volume of the intake manifold, the air/fuel ratio,
possible leakage paths, type of processing method used
(vibration welded vs. lost core) and material selection. The
material strength at the weld joint of the vibration-welded
design is weaker than the rest of the manifold because
reinforcement glass fiber does not cross the weld boundary. The
glass fiber tends to become parallel to the weld flange during
the welding process, causing the weld joint to be only as strong
as the base material. Research showed that intake manifolds made
of PA6 has higher burst strength than those made of PA66.
Another approach to backfire issue is to incorporate a backfire
relief valve that relieves pressure during a backfire event.
This type of valve has already been commercialized in some
engines, notably Volkswagen.
One of the challenges in
designing a composite material intake system is to consider the
temperature range covered by the need for exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) for NOx emission control in engines. DuPont
and RAETECH Corp. addressed this issue in early 1990s with the
development of a thin-walled tube called the EGR Isolator
(EGRI), which commercialized on the 1993 GM 3800 V-6 engine. The
component, made of glass-reinforced nylon, is used to attach the
high-temperature EGR outlet tube to the intake manifold. The
EGRI provides a large temperature gradient between the two
elements. The outer tube directs heat to the surroundings and
insulates the manifold from direct exposure to conduction,
radiation, and convective heat transfer. Although the EGRI
solves a narrow range of high temperature operation for low EGR
levels (10-15 %), future levels of EGR gases of up to about 40%
may necessitates new technologies to address this problem.
Finally, combination of
environmental issues and stricter fuel consumption requirements
have encouraged manufacturers to undertake studies on reducing
both weight and friction. In this area much attention is focused
on metal matrix composite (MMC) materials, specifically,
aluminum alloy composite materials for cylinder block because of
improving material properties and reducing weight. Researchers
and engineers have been seeking for the possibility of applying
a new method where particulates, as modifiers, are added to
molten metal in mass production. This is a subject of current
research and has not yet reached a mature and practical level.
Figure 1. Indicates an
increased total weight of a modern car (compared to a base unit
in 1970) despite a substantial reduction in use of steel and
iron (blue color). Opportunities clearly exist to reduce the
total weight of production cars for the future by strategic
applications of composite materials.
Figure 2. Weight
distribution for different components in a typical 1994 car as
compared to an ideal concept car for the future.
Figure 3. Historical
evolution of the composite materials and their major
applications in automotive and aerospace industries.